Tang Poetry

Tang Poetry

Introduction

Tang poetry (唐詩) refers to poetry written in or around the time of or in the characteristic style of China's Tang dynasty, (June 18, 618 - June 4, 907, including the 690-705 reign of Wu Zetian) and follows a certain style, often considered as the Golden Age of Chinese poetry. According to the Quantangshi anthology created under the Kangxi emperor of the Qing dynasty, there were almost 50,000 Tang poems written by over 2,200 authors. During the Tang dynasty, poetry continued to be an important part of social life at all levels of society. Scholars were required to master poetry for the civil service exams, but the art was theoretically available to everyone. This led to a large record of poetry and poets, a partial record of which survives today. Two of the most famous poets of the period were Du Fu and Li Bai. Tang poetry has had an ongoing influence on world literature and modern and quasi-modern poetry.

The most popular Tang Poems collection might be the so-called 300 Tang Poems compiled by Qing dynasty scholar Sun Zhu. It is so popular that many poems in it have been adopted by Chinese language text books of China's primary schools and secondary schools. Some of the poems in it are normally regarded as must-recite ones. He said he found the poems in the poetry textbook students that had been using, "Poems by A Thousand Writers" (Qian-jia-shi), were not carefully selected but a mixture of Tang dynasty poems and Song dynasty poems written in different styles. He also regarded that some poetry works in that book were not very well-written in terms of language skill and rhyme. Therefore, he picked those best and most popular poems from Tang dynasty only and formed this new collection of about 310 poems including poems by the most renowned poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu. These poems are about various topics including friendship, politics, idyllic life and ladies' life, and so on.

Famous Poets

1. Li Bai / Li Po (李白) known as "Poet Immortal" (诗仙)2. Du Fu (杜甫) known as "Poet Saint" (诗圣）

3. Wang Wei (王维) known as "Poet Buddha" (诗佛)

4. Su Shi (苏轼) known as "Poet God" (诗神)

5. Bai Juyi / Po Chu-I (白居易) known as "Poet Devil" (诗魔)

6. Li He (李贺) known as "Poet Ghost" (诗鬼)
7. Liu Yuxi (刘禹锡)
8. He Zhizhang (贺知章)
9. Wang Changling (王昌龄)
10. Li Shangying (李商隐) 

Famous Poems

1. 静夜思（李白)

床前明月光

疑似地上霜

举头望明月

低头思故乡

Night Thoughts (by Li Bai)

I wake, and moonbeams play around my bed,
Glittering like hoar-frost to my wandering eyes;
Up towards the glorious moon I raise my head,
Then lay me down and thoughts of home arise.

2. 枫桥夜泊（张继）

月落乌啼霜满天

江枫渔火对愁眠

姑苏城外寒山寺

夜半钟声到客船

A Night Mooring Near Maple Bridge

While I watch the moon go down, a crow caws through the frost;
Under the shadows of maple-trees a fisherman moves with his torch;
And I hear, from beyond Su-chou, from the temple on Cold Mountain,

Ringing for me, here in my boat, the midnight bell.

Brief Introduction of Dream of the Red Chamber (a.k.a. The Story of The Stone)

Brief Introduction of Dream of the Red Chamber (a.k.a. The Story of The Stone)

Main Characters

1. Jia Baoyu (贾宝玉)
2. Lin Daiyu (林黛玉)
3. Xue Baochai (薛宝钗)
4. Jia Yuanchun (贾元春)
5. Jia Tanchun (贾探春)
6. Shi Xiangyun (史湘云)
7. Wang Xifeng (王熙凤)
8. Miaoyu (妙玉)

Themes

1. Several traditional interpretations: love story, political satire, autobiography; work in praise of women ("Red Chamber" refers to the women's quarters of a traditional family compound)--all are essentially correct

2. A basic element: Quest for identity and an understanding of one's purpose in life

3. Chinese Communist interpretations see it as a critique of "feudal" society 

4. Western scholarship (see below): Growing appreciation for the novel and its cultural significance; Dream may be viewed as a kind of "total vision" of Chinese culture--"Prospect Garden" is a sort of cultural metaphor

5. The novel itself is a reflection of Chinese aesthetics and world view; the culmination of China's rich literary tradition; includes examples of every major type of Chinese literature, including several kinds of poetry

6. General cultural value: Sheds light on virtually every aspect of elite (and much popular) culture, from family life, social roles and values to religious practices and attitudes, amusements, food, medicine, clothing and architecture

7. The gap between theory and practice in Chinese social life

Summary of The Story

Ages ago, in the realm of the Great Void, the Goddess Nugua, whose task it is to repair the Dome of Heaven, rejects a stone that she finds unsuited to her purpose. She touches it, however, so the stone becomes endowed with life. Thereafter it can move as it pleases. In time, it chances on a crimson flower in the region of the Ethereal, where each day it waters the tender blossoms with drops of dew. At last the plant is incarnated as a beautiful young woman. Remembering the stone that showered the frail plant with refreshing dew, she prays that in her human form she might repay it with the gift of her tears. Her prayers are to be granted, for the stone, too, was given life in the Red Dust of earthly existence. At his birth, the piece of jade is miraculously found in the mouth of Pao-yu, a younger son of the rich and powerful house of Chia, which by imperial favor was raised to princely eminence several generations before.

At the time of Pao-yu’s birth, the two branches of the Chia family live in great adjoining compounds of palaces, pavilions, and parks on the outskirts of Peking. The Matriarch, Madame Shih, an old woman of great honor and virtue, rules as the living ancestress over both establishments. Chia Ging, the prince of the Ningkuofu, retired to a Taoist temple some time before, and his son Chia Gen is master in his place. The master of the Yungkuofu is Chia Sheh, the older son of the Matriarch. Chia Cheng, her younger son and Pao-yu’s father, also lives with his family and attendants in the Yungkuofu. A man of upright conduct and strict Confucian morals, he is a contrast to the other members of his family, who grew lax and corrupt through enervating luxury and the abuse of power.

Pao-yu, the possessor of the miraculous jade stone and a boy of great beauty and quick wit, is his grandmother’s favorite. Following her example, the other women of the family—his mother, aunts, sisters, cousins, and waiting maids—dote on the boy and pamper him at every opportunity, with the result that he grows up girlish and weak, a lover of feminine society. His traits of effeminacy infuriate and disgust his austere father, who treats the boy with undue severity. As a result, Pao-yu keeps as much as possible to the women’s quarters.

His favorite playmates are his two cousins, Black Jade and Precious Virtue. Black Jade, a granddaughter of the Matriarch, came to live in the Yungkuofu after her mother’s death. She is a lovely, delicate girl of great poetic sensitivity, and she and Pao-yu are drawn to each other by bonds of sympathy and understanding that seem to stretch back into some unremembered past. Precious Virtue, warmhearted and practical, is the niece of Pao-yu’s mother. She is a woman as good as her brother Hsueh Pan is vicious. He is always involving the family in scandal because of his pursuit of maidens and young boys. Pao-yu’s favorite waiting maid is Pervading Fragrance. She sleeps in his chamber at night, and it is with her that he follows a dream vision and practices the play of cloud and rain.

When word comes that Black Jade’s father is ill and wishes to see her before his death, the Matriarch sends the girl home under the escort of her cousin Chia Lien. During their absence, Chin-shih, the daughter-in-law of Chia Gen, dies after a long illness. By judicious bribery, the dead woman’s husband, Chia Jung, is made a chevalier of the Imperial Dragon Guards in order that she might be given a more elaborate funeral. During the period of mourning, Chia Gen asks Phoenix, Chia Lien’s wife, to take charge of the Ningkuofu household. This honor gives Phoenix a position of responsibility and power in both palaces.

Brief Introduction of Water Margin

Brief Introduction of Water Margin

List of Main Characters

1. Song Jiang (宋江), known as "Protector of Justice" (呼保义)
2. Lu Jun Yi (卢俊义), known as "Jade Qilin" (玉麒麟)
3. Wu Yong (吴用), known as "Resourceful Star" (智多星)
4. Chao Gai (晁盖), known as "Pagoda-Shifting Heavenly King" (托塔天王)
5. Lu Zhishen (鲁智深), known as "Flowery Monk" (花和尚)
6. Lin Chong (林冲), known as "Panther Head" (豹子头)
7. Wu Song (武松), known as "Pilgrim" (行者)
8. Gongsun Sheng (公孙胜), known as "Dragon in the Clouds" (入云龙)

Theme

Corrupt Government

The fall out from a corrupt government is one of the major issues dealt with in this novel. The reason that the bandits have formed their coalition in Liangshan Marsh is because they have been wrongly accused of crimes, or have been forced to commit crimes in an effort to protect themselves or others. For instance, Song Jiang kills Poxi because she is trying to keep a letter from Chao Gai that could endanger both Song and Chao.

In this society, government officials are more apt to be swayed by a bribe than the truth. It doesn't help that most of the government officials consider Song and his bandits as enemies since most of them are outcasts as a result of actions by those same government officials.

Summary of the Story

The novel Water Margin by Shi Nai'an details the rise and fall of a group of bandits during the time of the Song Dynasty in China. Among the themes addressed in this novel are the abuse of power by officials, the unjust punishment of the loyal and the power of chivalry and loyalty. Much can also be learned from the novel about the customs and habits of the early Chinese people as well as their thought and belief systems. 

The story of Water Margin begins when Marshal Hong Xin is sent to a Taoist monastery to request a cure for a plague currently being suffered by the people of the Eastern Capital. Hong causes problems when he commands the monks of the monastery to free the 108 demons being held captive in the Suppression of Demons Hall. It is written in the book that these demons would cause trouble if released. The conclusion of the first chapter, however, indicates that 108 stars, corresponding to the number of demons released, would also appear on the earth. 

These 108 stars, 36 stars of heavenly spirits and 72 stars of earthly spirits, become the bandits of Liangshan Marsh. These men become bandits not because they are rebels, but because they have in some way been framed by corrupt officials and either forced to do something illegal because of the fake crime, or just accused of something they didn't do. Eventually, there are 108 of these bandit chieftains, along with numerous other warriors, who gather in the marshy stronghold at lm and wait for amnesty to be granted to them so that they can once again serve their country without the mark of being a criminal. 

Even when amnesty does come, however, the bandits are still not completely free to serve their country. They are first sent to northern China where they defeat the invading Liao forces. Next, they are sent to southern China where after many battle casualties, they manage to overcome invading rebel forces led by Fang La. At the point that the chieftains are set to receive honors from the Chinese emperor, there are only 27 of the men remaining. Most of these refuse the leadership positions offered them in hopes of a quieter life. The two main leaders of the group of bandit chieftains, Song Jiang and Ju Junyi accept leadership roles, but are murdered by the corrupt officials who still regard these former bandits as enemies. Since the emperor never realizes it is his own officials who killed Song and Ju, these officials are never punished. After their deaths, however, Song and Ju are widely honored and worshipped. 

Brief Introduction of Romance of The Three Kingdom

Brief Introduction of Romance of The Three Kingdom

Main Characters

The "Shu" (蜀) Kingdom

1. Liu Bei 刘备
2. Zhuge Liang 诸葛亮
3. Guan Yu 关羽
4. Zhang Fei 张飞
5. Zhao Yun 赵云

The "Wei" (魏) Kingdom

1. Cao Cao 曹操
2. Sima Yi 司马懿
3. Xiahou Dun 夏侯惇
4. Cao Ren 曹仁
5. Yang Xiu 杨修

The "Wu" (吴) Kingdom

1. Sun Quan 孙权
2. Zhou Yu 周瑜
3. Zhang Zhao 张昭
4. Huang Gai 黄盖
5. Lu Xun 陆逊

Others

1. Lv Bu 吕布
2. Dong Zhuo 董卓
3. Yuan Shao 袁绍
4. Hua Xiong 华雄
5. Zhang Jiao 张角

Summary of The Story

Yellow Turban Rebellion and The Ten Attendants

In the final years of the Eastern Han dynasty, treacherous eunuchs and villainous officials deceive the emperor and persecute good ministers. The government gradually becomes extremely corrupt on all levels, leading to widespread deterioration of the Han Empire. During the reign of Emperor Ling, the Yellow Turban Rebellion breaks out under the leadership of Zhang Jiao.

The rebellion is barely suppressed by imperial forces led by the general He Jin. Upon Emperor Ling's death, He Jin installs the young Emperor Shao on the throne and takes control of the central government. The Ten Attendants, a group of influential court eunuchs, fear that He Jin is growing too powerful, so they lure him into the palace and assassinate him. In revenge, He Jin's supporters break into the palace and indiscriminately slaughter any person who looks like a eunuch. In the ensuing chaos, Emperor Shao and the Prince of Chenliu disappear from the palace.

Dong Zhuo's Tyranny

The missing emperor and the prince are found by soldiers of the warlord Dong Zhuo, who proceeds to take control of the imperial capital Luoyang under the pretext of protecting the emperor. Dong Zhuo later deposes Emperor Shao and replaces him with the Prince of Chenliu (Emperor Xian), who is merely a figurehead under Dong's control. Dong Zhuo monopolises state power, persecutes his political opponents, and oppresses the common people for his personal gain. There are two attempts on his life: the first is by a general Wu Fu, who fails and dies a gruesome death; the second is by Cao Cao, who nearly succeeds.

Cao Cao escapes from Luoyang and then sends out an imperial edict in the emperor's name to various regional officials and warlords, calling them to rise up against Dong Zhuo. Under Yuan Shao's leadership, 18 warlords form a coalition army and launch a campaign against Dong Zhuo. Dong Zhuo feels threatened after losing at the battles of Sishui Pass and Hulao Pass, so he decides to evacuate Luoyang and move the capital to Chang'an in the west. He forces Luoyang's residents to move together with him and has the city set aflame. The coalition eventually breaks up due to poor leadership and conflicting interests among its members. Meanwhile, in Chang'an, Dong Zhuo is betrayed and murdered by his foster son Lü Bu in a dispute over the maiden Diaochan as part of a plot orchestrated by the minister Wang Yun

Conflict among The Various Warlords and Nobles

In the meantime, the Han Empire is already disintegrating into civil war and anarchy as various warlords start fighting for land and power. Sun Jian finds the Imperial Seal in the ruins of Luoyang and secretly keeps it for himself. Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan are at war in the north while Sun Jian and Liu Biao are battling in the south. Others such as Cao Cao and Liu Bei, who initially had no titles or land, are also gradually forming their own armies and taking control of territories.

Cao Cao rescues Emperor Xian from Dong Zhuo's remnants, establishes the new capital in Xu, and becomes the new head of the central government. He defeats his rivals such as Lü Bu, Yuan Shu and Zhang Xiu in a series of wars in central China before scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu. Through his conquests, Cao Cao unites central and northern China under his control. The lands he conquered would serve as the foundation of the state of Cao Wei in the future.

Liu Bei's Ambition

Liu Bei and his oath brothers Guan Yu and Zhang Fei had sworn allegiance to the Han dynasty in the Oath of the Peach Garden and pledged to do their best for the Han Empire. However, their ambitions have yet to be realised and they were not given due recognition despite helping to suppress the Yellow Turban Rebellion and participating in the campaign against Dong Zhuo. After Liu Bei succeeds Tao Qian as the governor of Xu Province, he offers shelter to Lü Bu, who had just been defeated by Cao Cao. However, Lü Bu betrays his host, seizes control of the province, and attacks Liu Bei. Liu Bei combines forces with Cao Cao and they defeat Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi. Liu Bei then follows Cao Cao back to the capital Xu, where he is honoured by Emperor Xian as the "Imperial Uncle". When Cao Cao shows signs that he is planning to usurp the throne, Emperor Xian writes a secret decree in blood to Dong Cheng and orders him to get rid of Cao. Dong Cheng secretly contacts Liu Bei and others, and they plan to assassinate Cao Cao. However, the plot is leaked out and Cao Cao has Dong Cheng and the others arrested and executed along with their families.

Liu Bei has already left Xu when the plot was exposed, and he proceeds to take control of Xu Province from Che Zhou, the new governor appointed by Cao Cao. In retaliation, Cao Cao attacks Xu Province and defeats Liu Bei, forcing him to take shelter under Yuan Shao for a brief period of time. Liu Bei eventually leaves Yuan Shao and establishes a new base in Runan, but is defeated by Cao Cao again. He retreats south to Jing Province, where he finds shelter under the governor Liu Biao. Liu Biao puts Liu Bei in charge of a small county, Xinye. In Xinye, Liu Bei visits Zhuge Liang thrice and recruits him as an advisor. He also builds up his forces in preparation for war against Cao Cao.

Battle of Red Cliff

Cao Cao is appointed as the chancellor and he leads his forces south to attack Liu Bei after unifying central and northern China. He is defeated twice at Xinye by Liu Bei, but Liu also loses the county. Liu Bei leads his followers and the civilians on an exodus further south and they arrive at Jiangxia.

Liu Bei sends Zhuge Liang to meet Sun Quan and discuss the formation of a Sun–Liu alliance to counter Cao Cao. Sun Quan agrees and places Zhou Yu in command of his army in preparation for an upcoming war with Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang remains temporarily in Wu to assist Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu feels that Zhuge Liang will become a threat to Wu in the future and tries to kill him on a few occasions but fails. He has no choice but to cooperate with Zhuge Liang for the time being. The Sun–Liu forces score a decisive victory over Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Sun Quan and Liu Bei start vying for control of southern Jing Province after their victory at Red Cliffs, but Liu wins and takes over the territories from Cao Cao's general Cao Ren. Sun Quan is unhappy and sends messengers to ask Liu Bei to "return" the province to him, but Liu dismisses the messengers each time with a different excuse. Sun Quan is unwilling to give up, so he follows Zhou Yu's plan to trick Liu Bei to come to Wu to marry his sister Lady Sun and then hold Liu hostage in exchange for Jing Province. However, the plan fails and the newlywed couple returns to Jing Province safely. Zhou Yu dies in frustration after Zhuge Liang repeatedly foils his plans to take Jing Province.

Death of Guan Yu

Meanwhile, Sun Quan plots to take Jing Province after growing tired of Liu Bei's repeated refusals to hand over the province. He makes peace with Cao Cao and allies with Cao against Liu Bei. While Guan Yu, who is in charge of Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province, is away attacking Cao Ren at the Battle of Fancheng, Sun Quan sends his general Lü Meng to launch a stealth invasion on Jing Province. Guan Yu is unable to capture Fancheng so he retreats, but is caught off guard by Lü Meng and had already lost Jing Province before he realised it. With the size of his army gradually shrinking over time, Guan Yu withdraws to Maicheng, where he is surrounded by Sun Quan's forces. In desperation, he attempts to break out of the siege but fails and is captured in an ambush. He is executed by Sun Quan after refusing to surrender.

Shortly after Guan Yu's death, Cao Cao dies of a brain tumour and his son Cao Pi forces Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour, thereby ending the Han dynasty. Cao Pi establishes the state of Cao Wei. In response, Liu Bei also declares himself the emperor and founds the state of Shu Han as a successor state to the Han dynasty. While Liu Bei is planning to avenge Guan Yu, Zhang Fei is assassinated in his sleep by his subordinates.

Zhuge Liang's Campaign

After Liu Bei's death, Cao Pi induces several forces, including Sun Quan, a turncoat Shu general Meng Da, the Nanman and Qiang tribes, to attack Shu, in coordination with a Wei army. However, Zhuge Liang manages to send the five armies retreating without any bloodshed. He also sends Deng Zhi to secure a peace treaty with Sun Quan and renew the former alliance between Shu and Wu. Zhuge Liang then personally leads a southern campaign against the Nanman, defeats them seven times, and wins the allegiance of the Nanman king Meng Huo.

After pacifying the south, Zhuge Liang leads the Shu army on five military expeditions to attack Wei in the name of restoring the Han dynasty. However, his days are numbered because he has been suffering from chronic illness and his condition worsens under stress. He eventually dies of illness at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains while leading a stalemate battle against the Wei general Sima Yi.

End of Three Kingdom

The long years of battle between Shu and Wei see many changes in the ruling Cao family in Wei. The influence of the Caos weakens after Cao Rui's death and state power eventually falls into the hands of Sima Yi, and then to his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao.

In Shu, Jiang Wei inherits Zhuge Liang's legacy and continues to lead another nine campaigns against Wei for three decades, but fails to achieve any significant success. Besides, the Shu emperor Liu Shan turns out to be an incompetent ruler who places faith in corrupt officials. Shu gradually declines under Liu Shan's rule and is eventually conquered by Wei forces. Jiang Wei attempts to restore Shu with the help of Zhong Hui, a Wei general who is dissatisfied with Sima Zhao, but their plan fails and both of them are killed in battle. After the fall of Shu, Sima Zhao dies and his son Sima Yan forces the last Wei emperor, Cao Huan, to abdicate in his favour, thereby ending the state of Cao Wei. Sima Yan then establishes the Jin dynasty with him as its first emperor.

In Wu, there has been internal conflict among the nobles since Sun Quan's death. Besides, there are also attempts by the regents Zhuge Ke and Sun Chen to seize power, but both of them are ousted and killed in coups. Although stability is temporarily restored in Wu, the last Wu emperor Sun Hao turns out to be a tyrant. Wu, the last of the Three Kingdoms, is eventually conquered by the Jin dynasty. The fall of Wu marks the end of the near century-long era of civil strife historically known as the Three Kingdoms period.

Brief Introduction of Journey to the West

Brief Introduction of Journey to the West

The Journey to the west is a chinese classic novel about gods and demons. It was one of the 4 classical fiction (together with Red Chamber Dream, Romance of 3 kingdoms and Water Margin). In the novel, it describe the story of Tang venerable Xuan Zang's travel to the western land to obtain the buddhist scriptures. It displayed the traditional theme of punishing the evil while praising the good. The book was roughly written during mid Ming dynasty (16th century) and had been translated into many other foreign languages.

The characters in the novel such as Monkey "Sun Wu kong 孙悟空", Tang Seng 唐僧, Pig "Zhu Ba Jie 猪八戒", Sand Monk "Sha Seng 沙僧" etc as well as stories such as "Creating Havoc in the heavenly court (大闹天宫)", "3 times hitting white bone demon (三打白骨精)", "Fire Mountain (火焰山) are popular among the folks. The novels had been themes of chinese opera, movies, animation, comics etc.

Most regarded the author of the novel as Wu ChengEn (吴承恩)

Historical Origin of the novel

The character Tang Seng was based on a real historical figure Xuan Zang who lived during Tang dynasty. In the novel however his story had become fictionalized. In 629, Xuan Zang went on a pilgrimage tour to India to learn about the buddhism and obtain buddhist scripture. His disciple compiled a book called "Travel Records of Western Region (大唐西域记)". After Xuan Zang's death, his two other disciples Hui Li 慧立 and Yan Cong 严悰 compiled another book called "Biography of Compassion Monastery San Zhang Venerables (大慈恩司三藏法师传)" in order to honor their master's record. In the book, there are also some legendary aspects of Xuan Zang, which was regarded as the start of the legendary story in "Journey to the West". After that, his story began to be spread among the folks.


By late Tang and 5 dynasties period, there were various records of the story of Xuan Zang going to the west. Today's Dunhuang murals in which Xuan Zang obtained his scripture was originated during Western Xia period. It already indicated monkey's face. During Southern Song period, the published "Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取经诗话" also had a monkey. In other various opera of Song and Yuan dynasty such as "Er Lang Shen Shuo Qi Tian Da Shen 二郎神锁齐天大圣" all had origins of "Journey to the West". By Ming era, the Journey to the West was written.


Theme of the Novel

The essential theme of the novel is fantasy (about gods and demons). The main character Sun Wu Kong was a monkey. At the same time, the novel also reflect a combination of 3 religions as one, namely Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism. It combined the heaven of the Daoism, the deity system of hell and sea together with the western paradise of the buddhism. At the same time, it also projected the loyalty and filial piety of heavenly beings. Journey to the West also came up with the view "one should take turn to be emperor, next year will be my home", and at the same time, the heavenly deity system was a reflection of the Ming political society.

In his book "Chinese Novel Historical Overview (中国小说史略)", Lu Xun once commented that the Journey to the west was a reflection of one's life. When a person was young, he would be active and daring to rebel, he can disobey any form of rules and power. But once the person was fixed onto a leader, he would follow the rules and overcome all the temptations and obstacles in life (81 obstacles) and will finally achieve 'enlightenment'. This person is of course referring to the main character Sun Wukong who was later 'tamed'.

Chinese Characters

Chinese Characters

Chinese characters, also known as Hanzi (漢字) are one of the earliest forms of written language in the world, dating back approximately five thousand years. Nearly one-fourth of the world’s population still use Chinese characters today. As an art form, Chinese calligraphy remains an integral aspect of Chinese culture.

Origin of Chinese Characters

As one kind of the most ancient characters, Chinese characters have played a significant role in the development of Chinese culture. Originally, ancient Sumerian and ancient Egyptian symbols existed, but only Chinese characters remain today.

Based on pictographs, Chinese characters combine shapes with sounds and connotations to form unique, block-shaped characters that carry meaning. Archaeological researchers discovered many such signs carved on earthenware excavated from Banpo Village in Xi'an City and Jiangzhai Village in Lintong. The etchings were carved during the Yangshao Culture Period some 6,000 years ago. More than 4,000 years ago, people living in Tai'an area of Shangdong Province also carved signs on earthenware. The character "旦"(dàn),meaning dawn, for instance; the sun (日) rises upwards, crossing the mountains and passing through cloud layers to tell people a new day has begun. It is safe to say that the earthenware signs are the first Chinese characters, which originated from drawings.

Evolution of Chinese Characters

Chinese charaters have evolved from Jiaguwen (甲骨文) (inscription on tortoise shells and animal bones) to today's characters over a long process. Jiaguwen of the Shang Dynasty (c. 1765-1112BC) is a group of Chinese characters that resemble drawings.

In the Shang Dynasty and Western Zhou Dynasty (1121-771BC), there were also inscriptions on bronzeware called Zhongdingwen (钟鼎文)， which also resembled drawings. After the first emperor of the Qing Dynasty (221-207BC) unified China, he also unified Chinese characters and introduced  Xiaozhuan (小篆) (lesser seal script) --- a very beautiful style of characters.

Since the Xiaozhuan script was very time-consuming, people of the Qin further simplified the characters and created a new style,  Lishu (隶书) (offical script). In the Han Dynasty (206BC-AD8), Lishu -- including another type of calligraphy, Caoshu (草书) (grass script), followed by Xingshu (行书) (running script)-- became the main general typeface. The official script broke away from the pictographic element of ancient Chinese characters laying the foundations for Kaishu (楷书) (regular script).

Kaishu came into being in the late Han Dynasty and was based on Lishu. After Kaishu appered, the block-shaped Chinese characters were finalized Kaishu has been used ever since. Kaishu is standard calligraphy that has been used for the longest period of time, still today. For the students in Chinese schools, they are required to write the Chinese characters in Kaishu as the regular script.

The evolution of the Chinese character for dragon (long 龍) is illustrated below:

Oracle Bone Inscriptions refers to the writings inscribed on the carapaces of tortoises and mammals during theShang Dynasty (1600 – 1046 B.C.). This is the earliest form of Chinese characters. Because Oracle Bone inscriptions mainly recorded the art of divination, this script is also called bu ci (卜辭), divination writings. Over one thousand of the over four thousand characters inscribed on excavated oracle bones have been deciphered.
Bronze Inscriptions are the characters inscribed on bronze objects, such as ritual wine vessels, made during the Shang (1600 – 1046 B.C.) and Zhou (1046 – 256 B.C.) dynasties. Over two thousand of the nearly four thousand collected single characters from these bronze objects are now understood.
Small Seal Characters refer to the written language popular during theQin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.). In the Warring States Period (475-221 B.C.), different scripts were in use in different parts of the Chinese empire. Following the conquest and unification of the country, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty simplified and unified the written language. This unification of the written language during the Qin Dynasty significantly influenced the eventual standardization of the Chinese characters.
Official Script is the formal written language of the Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – 220 A.D.). Over time, curved and broken strokes gradually increased, becoming distinct characteristics of this style. Official Script symbolizes a turning point in the evolution history of Chinese characters, after which Chinese characters transitioned into a modern stage of development.
Regular Script first appeared at the end of the Han Dynasty. But it was not until the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 A.D.) that Regular Script rose to dominant status. During that period, regular script continued evolving stylistically, reaching full maturity in the early Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.). Since that time, although developments in the art of calligraphy and in character simplification still lay ahead, there have been no more major stages of evolution for the mainstream script.
Cursive Writing first appeared at the beginning of the Han Dynasty. The earliest cursive writings were variants of the rapid, freestyle form of Official Script. Cursive Writing is not in general use, being a purely artistic, calligraphic style. This form can be cursive to the point where individual strokes are no longer differentiable, and characters are illegible to the untrained eye. Cursive Writing remains highly revered for the beauty and freedom it embodies.
Freehand Cursive (or semi-cursive writing) appeared and became popular during the Three Kingdoms Period (220-280 A.D.) and the Jin Dynasty (265-420 A.D.). Because this style is not as abbreviated as Cursive Writing, most people who can read Regular Script can read semi-cursive. Some of the best examples of semi-cursive are found in the work of Wang Xizhi (321-379 A.D.), the most famous calligrapher in Chinese history, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty (316-420 A.D.).
Simplified Chinese characters (Jianti Zi, 简体字) are standardized Chinese characters used in Mainland China. The government of the People’s Republic of China began promoting this form for printing use in the 1950s ’60s in an attempt to increase literacy. Simplified characters are the official form of the People’s Republic of China and in Singapore; traditional Chinese characters are still used in Hong Kong, Macau and the Republic of China (Taiwan). Since 1954, over 2,200 Chinese characters have been simplified.

Other Examples of Evolution of Chinese Characters

Introduction to Chinese Literature

Introduction to Chinese Literature

China possesses one of the world's major literary traditions. Its texts have been preserved for over 3,000 years. Reverence for the past has influenced the preservation of these cultural sources, and may have influenced the invention of woodblock printing in the 9th century and movable type printing in the 12th century. The practice of collecting and reproducing libraries has also played a major role in the transmission of literary tradition. Most important, China can boast an unbroken cultural tradition based on the Chinese script as a language — a written medium — independent of spoken dialectic difference. As literary language became increasingly removed from spoken language, it became less vital and literature took a natural turn toward imitation. Indeed, after the formative classical period that began with Confucius, the literary history of China becomes one of imitation-with-variations of different models. Literature also thus becomes more elitist, for an understanding or appreciation of a text may require familiarity with the models being alluded to.



The Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC) is known for its surviving religious and philosophical texts. In the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), texts of an influential political philosophy called Legalism were written. Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) authors contributed important poetry and scientific and historical texts. The Tang Dynasty (618-907) poets were considered the best of all the eras in Chinese history, and literature was more widely published by early woodblock printing. During the Song Dynasty era (960-1279), travelers wrote travel literature, more literary poetry was written, the Neo-Confucian Classics were codified, and administration officials did advanced scientific research and published advanced scientific texts. In the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), great dramas and classic fictional novels in the vernacular language were written. In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), some more important novels were written. In the last dynasty called the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), some more great novels were written; and at the end of that era, there was pre-modern literature. During the modern era (1912-present), the literature was westernized and used for political purposes. The long unbroken stream of Chinese literature is hard to summarize. Major works survive of a variety of genres including poetry, classic fictional novels, scientific and historical works, Neo-Confucian Classics and other ancient classical texts; and in the modern era, writers wrote about social and political change incorporating Western ideas and utilizing Western literary forms.

Contribution of Each Dynasty to the Chinese Literature

1. Shang Dynasty (1700-1050 BC)     : Development of Chinese Writing
2. Zhou Dynasty (1045-255 BC)        : Basic Philosophical and Religious Literature
3. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)             : Literary Disaster and Legalism
4. Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD)   : Scientific and Historical Texts
5. Tang Dynasty (618-907)                 : Early Woodblock Printing and Poetry
6. Song Dynasty (960-1279)               : Early Woodblock Printing, Travel Literature, Poetry,                                                                              Scientific Texts and the Neo-Confucian Classics
7. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368)             : Drama and Great Fictional Novels
8. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)             : Novels
9. Qing Dynasty(1644-1911)               : Novels and Pre-modern Literature
10. Modern Era (1912-present)            :Westernized Literature

The Four Greatest Classical Novels (四大名著 si-da-ming-zhu)

1. Romance of the Three Kingdom (三国演义 san-guo-yan-yi) 
    by Luo Guanzhong (Yuan Dynasty)












2. Water Margin (水浒传 shui-hu-zhuan) 
    by Shi Nai'an (Ming Dynasty)
















3. Journey to the West (西游记 xi-you-ji) 

    by Wu Cheng'en (Ming Dynasty)












4. Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦 hong-lou-meng) 
    by Cao Xueqin (Qing Dynasty)